BY BILL GUSTIN
This article examines fire extension, collapse hazards, and tactics for confining fires in overhangs, including eaves, mansards, and cornices. Canopies and marquees are also overhangs that present danger and difficulties to firefighters, but we will not address them in this article.
Overhangs projecting from the top or near the top of exterior walls enhance a building’s appearance and shield walls, windows, and doorways from direct exposure to sun and rain. Overhangs on commercial buildings often rise above the roofline to conceal rooftop mechanical equipment. A size-up of overhangs that are involved in or exposed to fire is essential to determine their potential for collapse and to extend hidden fire. The most critical factor of this size-up is determining whether an overhang is structural (an integral part of the roof that cantilevers over the top of exterior walls) or nonstructural (an ornamental feature fastened to an exterior wall at or near the roofline) (photo 1).
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| (1) The potential for this mansard overhang to extend fire into the building and for it to collapse in pieces or in one piece depends on whether it is an integral part of the roof structure or just a decoration fastened to the front wall. (Photo by Paul Blake.) |
Determining whether an overhang is structural or nonstructural is essential to establish adequate collapse zones and choose the proper tactics to access, confine, and extinguish hidden fire spreading inside the overhang. There are some clues that may indicate whether an overhang is structural or nonstructural. For example, residential buildings tend to have overhangs that are part of the roof structure and, when the overhang is enclosed, it is actually part of the attic or cockloft, extending over and beyond the exterior walls. Conversely, commercial buildings are more likely to have nonstructural overhangs, which we will discuss later. Although the occupancy of a building may give some clue as to the type of overhang, it is just a clue. It is not an absolute. For example, we will look at a structural overhang that is very common on one-story commercial buildings (photos 2, 3). Smoke pushing from vents in the underside of an overhang is another clue that we will examine later.
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| (2 )This one-story strip commercial under construction has a structural mansard overhang. Roof trusses cantilevering over the front wall extend the cockloft into the overhang. (Photos by Eric Goodman.) |
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| (3) The mansard in photo 2 is now covered with plywood and sheet metal. A substantial wire lath-and-plaster soffit encloses its underside. You can gain access into the mansard by lifting a ceiling tile from inside the building. |
Overhangs are rarely equipped with fire-stopping; consequently, fire originating or extending into an overhang can spread without interruption through its entire length. It defies logic, but it is not uncommon to find buildings that have substantial fire walls that do not extend into overhangs. This allows fire to “wrap around” a firewall and extend to other parts of the building
EAVES
Eaves are a common structural feature of single-family homes that extend the ends of rafters or trusses of a pitched roof over exterior walls. Similarly, flat roofs of multiple dwellings that overhang the exterior walls are commonly finished with a steeply pitched mansard. Eaves are often enclosed by nailing a fascia (board) to the ends of rafters or trusses and a soffit to the underside. Mansards are similarly enclosed by a soffit. Enclosed eaves and mansards are usually an extension of the attic, making it very vulnerable to autoexposure. Fire burning out of the top-floor windows or up combustible siding is very likely to impinge on and penetrate the soffit, spreading fire into the attic. Fire extension by way of eaves and mansards is hastened when they are enclosed with lightweight vinyl or sheet metal soffits. Additionally, soffits are commonly penetrated by attic vents to reduce temperatures and prevent condensation between the roof and the top-floor ceiling. Soffit vents provide a direct path for fire to enter the attic. As previously mentioned, smoke pushing from vents in the underside of an overhang may be an indication of whether it is structural or nonstructural. For example, smoke pushing from the eaves of a single-family home is a fairly reliable sign that the overhang is structural and a part of an attic that probably has fire in it (photo 4).
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| (4) Smoke pushing from the eaves indicates that this overhang is structural—part of the attic, which looks like it has heavy fire in it. Firefighters observing this should expect a heavy fire condition in the attic and pull ceiling immediately inside their point of entry. (Photo by Paul Blake.) |
Smoke pushing from soffits can indicate the location and spread of fire that may not be readily determined from inside the structure. For example, smoke pushes from the eaves of a 1½-story frame house; a bedroom on the half story is filled with hot smoke, but no fire is visible. In this case, smoke pushing from the eaves may indicate fire in the knee wall, a dangerous condition that is worse when firefighters are unaware of it. Another example is smoke pushing from the eaves of an old two-story house, but there is no fire and very little smoke on the first and second floors. What are the eaves telling firefighters here? This is a telltale sign that the fire is in the basement and that this house is probably balloon frame. Smoke entering the walls at the foundation line travels vertically through stud spaces with no inherent fire stop and pushes from soffit vents in the eaves.
Firefighters must be proactive to prevent fire from impinging on the underside of eaves and mansards and spreading to the attic. Keep a close watch on windows directly below an overhang. Dark, turbulent smoke venting from windows can instantly flash to fire. Look for signs that a window may fail, such as a glow behind sooty glass that has cracked from heat. Position hoselines in anticipation of fire threatening the eaves. It is entirely possible for one firefighter to stretch a 1¾-inch hoseline and position it at a corner to protect the soffits on two sides of a building. “Wash” the underside of the soffit by directing a straight or solid stream close and parallel to the wall. This will provide maximum protection to soffits and prevent the stream from entering the window and “steaming” firefighters engaged in an interior attack. Directing a stream from this position will also protect soffits from a deck or rear porch fire. Additionally, water striking the underside of the overhang will cascade down the wall to extinguish burning exterior siding.
CORNICES
Old buildings constructed before the mid-1900s were commonly adorned with an elaborate ornamental cornice (photo 5), a nonstructural overhang fastened to the top or near the top of exterior walls, most commonly along a front wall, to enhance a building’s appearance. Old cornices are constructed of wood or extremely heavy plaster, called “gingerbread” by veteran firefighters who passionately warn of the risk of being struck by a piece of cornice. My dad, a 33-year veteran of the Chicago (IL) Fire Department who saw firefighters seriously injured by partial and total collapses of old cornices, taught me the danger of gingerbread early in my career.
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| (5) Old cornices are notorious for spreading concealed fire and causing collapse in large sections. (Photo by Lazaro Acosta.) |
Old cornices are marvels of architectural craftsmanship, but they require regular maintenance to prevent deterioration and to keep them from falling off the face of a building. The insides of cornices are essentially hollow and rarely, if ever, fitted with fire-stopping. Consequently, old cornices are notorious for spreading fire issuing from top-floor windows. But, the most significant problem with cornices is collapse. Fire, high winds, or years of neglect can cause a cornice or its fasteners to the wall to fail and fall to the sidewalk below. Fire officers must closely monitor any cornice that is involved in or threatened by fire. Establish collapse zones based on two considerations: First, an old cornice may already be on the verge of collapse because of hidden decay. Second, because it is not an integral part of the structure, it is not uncommon for a cornice to fall in one piece. Therefore, establish a collapse zone below the entire length of a cornice, including portions that have no indication of fire involvement.
Veteran firefighters may have long been retired, but old buildings with cornices remain, and they get older every day. Today’s firefighters cannot rely entirely on their own experience to keep them safe. They must learn from the experiences and lessons of veteran firefighters and heed their warning: “Stay out from under the gingerbread.”
New Cornices
A false mansard is a modern cornice or “eyebrow” fastened to the walls of new buildings when they are constructed or during renovation of older buildings to give them a modern appearance. False mansards are fastened to brick or concrete block walls with masonry anchors (photo 6). They are commonly attached to the front of one-story commercial buildings to shield the sidewalk and main entrance from sun and rain. A false mansard may be required by municipal ordinance to hide roof-mounted heating ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) equipment from view from the front of the building. Restaurants are commonly constructed or renovated with false mansards on the front and sides that extend several feet above the roof to conceal HVAC equipment, cooking exhaust fans, and ductwork. A grease fire in a restaurant usually requires an examination of the roof, where kitchen exhaust ductwork terminates. If possible, avoid laddering a restaurant roof from the front or sides. Firefighters climbing a ladder placed at the front or sides are likely to find themselves reaching the top of a mansard that can be as much as 10 feet above the roof (photo 7).
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| (6) The view inside a false mansard fastened to the front wall of a commercial building with masonry anchors. (Photos by Eric Goodman.) |
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| (7) These false mansards fastened to the front and side walls are hiding restaurant roof equipment. Avoid laddering mansards; ladder rear to access the roof. |
False mansards are by design deceiving; they make it difficult to determine a building’s age and interconnections with adjoining buildings. For example, there is a commercial area in my department’s jurisdiction that parallels Interstate 95. Most of the buildings in this area are one-story “taxpayers” constructed just after World War II. Over the years, these buildings have changed owners and occupancy several times and have been extensively renovated. In some cases, two or three adjoining buildings have been connected. Other detached buildings appear to be one large building, because they share a common false mansard that spans across the front of several businesses (photo 8).
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| (8) The false mansard fastened to the parapet above the show windows of detached buildings gives the appearance of one large building. Will the mansard’s dead load and leverage decrease the parapet’s stability and hasten its collapse? (Photos by Eric Goodman.) |
Never size up a building based strictly on observations from the front. False mansards and renovated facades make it imperative that you get a report from the rear for a true picture of a building’s size, age, and construction (photo 9).
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| (9) This view from the rear of renovated taxpayers provides a more accurate picture of the building’s size, age, and construction. |
False mansards share the same collapse and fire hazards as cornices on old buildings. Fire issuing from show windows in a strip shopping center or a vehicle fire in a fast food restaurant drive-up can penetrate the soffit and spread inside the entire length of a mansard, because they are rarely equipped with fire-stopping.
Fire officers must size up a false mansard with skepticism, wondering if a fire building was designed or strengthened to bear the additional dead weight. This is a greater concern when a heavy false mansard is fastened to the top of a parapet.
Consider this scenario: An old one-story taxpayer building, occupied by a self-service laundry, a liquor store, a Chinese restaurant, and a check-cashing service, is long overdue for a facelift. The building owner hires a contractor to fasten a false mansard covered with barrel tile to the masonry parapet above the show windows of each occupancy. Is the parapet, which is the section of wall above the level of the roof, strong enough to support the weight and resist the leverage exerted by the mansard? A parapet is inherently unstable and prone to collapse because it is free-standing and unsupported at its top. Additionally, the weight of the parapet and the front wall above the show windows is supported by a lintel, usually a steel “I” beam supported by columns and side bearing walls. A lintel is in a vulnerable location for exposure to fire issuing from show windows. Heat weakens and distorts the steel beam, which can cause the entire parapet to collapse on the sidewalk in front of the building. Will the extra weight and leverage of a false mansard decrease a parapet’s stability and hasten its collapse?
In Indiana, a paint and body shop was renovated by installing a false mansard. This overloaded the parapet to which it was fastened. To strengthen the parapet, metal rods were attached from the top of the wall to the roof. These rods failed at their attachment points during a fire, resulting in the collapse of the mansard and the parapet. The collapse killed a fire captain and seriously injured two firefighters.
Firefighters operating in the front of a commercial building are at risk of being struck by a collapsing parapet, cornice, or false mansard. The collapse may not be spectacular, but it can be dangerous. For example, Miami-Dade firefighters operating hoselines into the front of a well-involved store in a strip shopping center were not aware that heavy pieces of concrete were falling around them. Photos taken after the fire (photos 10, 11) clearly show how fire venting from show windows impinged on the underside of the overhang, causing decorative precast concrete to spall and break in large pieces.
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| (10, 11) Ornamental precast concrete fastened to this overhang spalled and fell in pieces to the sidewalk, narrowly missing firefighters. [Photos courtesy of Miami-Dade (FL) Fire Rescue.] |
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TACTICS
Any attempt to open and flow water into an overhang must be preceded by a size-up that answers two fundamental questions: (1) Has fire or decay weakened an overhang to a point where all or a portion of it will collapse on firefighters cutting holes, pulling on it, or flooding it with water? (2) Is the overhead structural or nonstructural?
If an overhang is structural, there is a good chance that it is an integral part of an attic or cockloft. If this is the case, it may be easier and safer to access and apply water into the overhang from the attic or cockloft than to attempt to cut holes or pull down its soffit from outside the building. To determine if this is a viable tactic, lift a top-floor ceiling tile, or pull the top-floor ceiling where it converges with the outside wall supporting the overhang. If necessary, stand on a folding ladder, a counter, or a substantial piece of furniture to look overhead with a hand light or thermal imaging camera. Often, it is easy to look directly into the overhang from this vantage point. Direct a stream into the overhead through openings in the ceiling. The success of this tactic will be immediate and obvious: Smoke issuing from the overhang will turn to steam, and water will drain from attic vents in the soffit (photos 12-14).
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| (12) Pulling soffits to overhaul the fire in the eaves is not necessary if the stream can be directed into the eaves from openings pulled in the ceiling. (Photos by Eric Goodman.) |
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| (13) A Class A foam stream is directed into the eaves. |
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| (14) The success of this tactic is obvious, as foam flooding the eaves drains out of the attic vents in the soffit. |
As mentioned before, structural overhangs are more common in residential buildings, but many strip commercial buildings have structural overhangs. For example, our company responded as part of a commercial building assignment to a report of a fire in a row of one-story commercial occupancies. The fire originated in a concession stand trailer parked under an overhang of a convenience store and impinged on the soffit. Firefighters, checking for extension into the overhang, used considerable effort to pull heavy wire lath and plaster from outside the building (photo 15). Their efforts, however, were unnecessary because the ½-inch plasterboard ceiling was easily opened where it met the front wall (photo 16). This opening provided immediate access to the inside of the overhang (photo 17).
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| (15) The firefighter is attempting to pull a heavy wire lath-and-plaster soffit to check for fire extension in the overhang. (Photo by Eric Baum.) |
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| (16) This effort was not necessary, |
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| (17) because the overhead was easily accessed by opening the ½-inch plasterboard ceiling, providing direct access into the overhang. (Photos 16 and 17 by Eric Goodman.) |
Firefighters attempting to access an overhang from the attic or cockloft may encounter drywall or insulation board isolating the overhang, which is exposed to the weather, from the rest of the cockloft. This barrier usually extends from the top of the tie beam or lintel above the show windows to the underside of the roof. Its purpose is to reduce the costs of heating and air-conditioning. This presents little, if any, obstacle to access the overhang, because you can easily penetrate it using a pike pole or the velocity of a solid stream.
Some Scenarios
Consider the following scenarios:
- Fire companies in my battalion operated at a fire in a large three-family residence. Fire had spread to the attic and extended into the eaves of the hip roof. Firefighters were making good progress by pulling ceilings and directing streams into the attic and eaves, when they heard a loud crash. This was the result of a later-arriving company that was eager to go to work and was attempting to pull down the soffit to reach fire burning in the eaves. Their efforts were, in a sense, too successful: They managed to pull down an extremely heavy section of wire lath-and-plaster soffit more than 30 feet long, which narrowly missed firefighters standing below it. These firefighters endangered and exerted themselves unnecessarily because companies operating inside had successfully extinguished fire in the eaves from their position.
- Firefighters in a Midwestern city were not as fortunate as those in the previous scenario. A top-floor fire had extended into the attic and roof mansards of an apartment building with exterior balcony-hallways. From the top-floor hallway, firefighters standing below the mansard attempted to pull a substantial soffit when a large section collapsed on top of them.
- Firefighters in West Palm Beach, Florida, conducted training in an acquired structure similar to the one in the previous scenario—an apartment with a mansard overhanging an exterior balcony-hallway. The captain conducting the training instructed firefighters that the proper method for extinguishing fire in the mansard of this building was to pull ceilings and operate hoselines from inside the top-floor apartments. He warned firefighters of the difficulty and danger of pulling the heavy wire lath-and-plaster soffit under the mansard, and then had the firefighters experience it for themselves. Firefighters positioned inside an apartment doorway, outside the collapse zone, used two 12-foot pike poles to gain an initial purchase by hooking the soffit through an attic vent. Then, with two firefighters pulling on each pike pole, the soffit gave way. Two large sections fell, which could have seriously injured or killed any firefighter standing under them (photos 18, 19).
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| (18, 19) Firefighters operating outside the collapse zone managed to pull down two extremely large and heavy sections of wire lath-and-plaster soffit. (Photos by Lazaro Acosta.) |
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The captain taught these firefighters a valuable lesson: Avoid pulling heavy soffit, but if you must pull it, do not stand below it. Use the reach of long pike poles to remain out of the collapse zone.
A structural overhang may allow access to fire in a cockloft that cannot be controlled from inside a fire building. This may be caused by the inability to pull more than one substantial ceiling or deteriorating fire or structural conditions. The overhang in photo 20 is typical of many old taxpayers. Firefighters can open the fascia across the front of this overhang operating from the basket of an aerial device, then they can use their elevated master stream to sweep the entire cockloft. Similarly, the overhang of the office building in photo 21 had its fascia torn off in Hurricane Wilma, exposing the cockloft. The feasibility of accessing a building’s cockloft by cutting through an overhang is best determined by prefire planning.
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| (20) The fascia across the front of this overhang can be opened to access and extinguish fire in the cockloft. (Photos by Eric Goodman.) |
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| (21) Wind tore off this fascia, exposing the entire cockloft of the office building. It could also have been removed by firefighters working from the basket of an elevated platform apparatus. |
Fire burning inside a nonstructural overhang, such as a cornice or a false mansard, can be difficult to reach because neither can be accessed from an attic or a cockloft. Firefighters must breach these overhangs with hand and power tools from outside the building. This can be a difficult and unreasonably dangerous task for firefighters working over their heads or standing on a ladder (photos 22, 23). Firefighters will be much safer and more effective opening an overhang from the basket of an elevating platform apparatus, which should be special-called without hesitation (photo 24). Position the apparatus and the basket outside the collapse zone.
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| (22, 23) Firefighters here have the difficult task of pulling a substantial corrugated metal soffit to overhaul fire in this mansard. (Photos by Eric Baum.) |
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| (24) Their task would have been much easier and safer if they were operating from the basket of a platform aerial apparatus. (Photo by Raul Torres.) |
Size up a nonstructural overhang to determine if it extends above roof level; most false mansards do extend above roof level because their purpose is to hide roof-mounted equipment. If the mansard extends above the roof, determine if it is fastened to a masonry parapet. If it is not, strongly consider opening the back of the mansard from the roof. When a roof is structurally stable, this is usually the easiest, safest, and least damaging way to breach and extinguish fire in a mansard. The backs of most mansards consist of plywood and are relatively easy to breach (photo 25). Conversely, the steeply pitched front of a mansard is usually covered with wooden shakes, barrel tile, or sheet metal that is difficult to penetrate. Again, avoid pulling the underside of an overhang with pike poles, especially on a commercial building. Soffits enclosing commercial overhangs are usually substantial plywood, sheet metal, or wire lath and plaster.
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| (25) Opening a cut in the back of a mansard provides safe and easy access from the roof. (Photos by Eric Goodman.) |
If opening a mansard from the roof is not an option, consider opening its sides. Often, this “gable” end is not covered with tile or shakes, and it may be the mansard’s weakest point (photo 26). Consider using piercing nozzles to penetrate and extinguish fire burning inside a mansard or cornice. Similarly, you can insert an old Navy fog applicator with the fog tip removed in a small hole and direct a stream horizontally and vertically inside the overhang. (See “A New Version of an Old Nozzle.”)
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(26) The “gable” end of this false mansard is much easier to open than the front of one covered with cement tiles. |
Overhaul a cornice or false mansard that has been heavily damaged by fire with extreme caution. Treat it like it could fall off the building at any moment.
A cornice or mansard can collapse hours or days after the last fire department unit has left the scene. Fire officers must notify the building and public works departments to set barricades blocking the street and sidewalk in the collapse zone and, possibly, to make arrangements with a demolition contractor to pull down an unstable overhang or parapet.
A New Version of an Old Nozzle
Fire departments continue to use old Navy fog applicators to fight vehicle fires. The applicator enables firefighters to apply a dense fog steam into wheel wells and underneath burning vehicles. Additionally, you can use the applicator very effectively to direct dry chemical to extinguish stubborn pressurized gasoline vapor fires that occur when fire impinges on a vehicle’s fuel tank. To apply dry chemical, disconnect the applicator pipe from the nozzle, unscrew the fog tip, and insert the hose of an extinguisher.
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| Photos by Eric Goodman. |
The old fog applicator is an excellent appliance, but it has two drawbacks. First, it flows only about 60 gallons per minute (gpm). This flow is insufficient for a significant fire involving a modern vehicle constructed with synthetic, hydrocarbon-based materials. Second, to apply water fog, you must connect the fog applicator to the old, antiquated Navy nozzle. If firefighters begin their attack on a vehicle fire with a modern nozzle and then decide to use the applicator, they must shut down their hoseline to change nozzles. Although the concept of the Navy fog applicator is excellent, it is time for an updated version.
Firefighters in my company had a welding shop fabricate an applicator out of two-inch aluminum pipe with a 45° elbow, to approximate the shape of an old applicator. The two-inch waterway will flow 180 gpm with minimal friction loss. Our new applicator is fitted with a 1½-inch national standard thread male and female swivel connection, making it compatible with modern fire nozzles. The 1¾-inch preconnect hoseline used most frequently by our company for vehicle fires is equipped with a ball shutoff nozzle with a removable fog tip. This facilitates unscrewing the fog tip and rapidly connecting the applicator without shutting down the hoseline. Our intention is to develop a better applicator for vehicle fires, but we soon discovered that it was effective for a variety of uses.
The applicator is excellent for directing a stream through basement windows, which may be necessary when the first floor is supported by lightweight engineered wood trusses or I-joists. It is difficult to direct a stream from a conventional handline nozzle into the overhead from basement windows that are below grade in window wells. This is necessary to extinguish fire involving structural members supporting the first floor. The applicator is ideal for this purpose because of the angle of its elbow. You can also insert the applicator into small holes opened in ceilings, floors, balloon-frame walls, roofs, and overhangs to extinguish fire in concealed spaces. We are in the process of designing an applicator with a swivel, similar to those on piping for crosslay preconnects operated by a lever to adjust the angle of the stream.
BILL GUSTIN, a 37-year veteran of the fire service, is a captain with Miami-Dade (FL) Fire Rescue and lead instructor in his department’s officer training program. He began his fire service career in the Chicago area and teaches fire training programs in Florida and other states. He is a marine firefighting instructor and has taught fire tactics to ship crews and firefighters in Caribbean countries. He also teaches forcible entry tactics to fire departments and SWAT teams of local and federal law enforcement agencies. Gustin is an editorial advisory board member of Fire Engineering.
