BY STEVE BERNOCCO, MIKE GAGLIANO, PHIL JOSE, AND CASEY PHILLIPS
The Rule of Air Management is simple: Know how much air you have in your SCBA and manage the amount of air you have so that you leave the hazardous environment before your SCBA low-air warning bell begins to ring.1
This rule holds true for any fire building or hazardous atmosphere. Firefighters should follow it at all times: at bread-and-butter room fires, at house fires, at the large apartment house fire, at the large commercial fire, at the confined-space rescue-at any incident where firefighters use their SCBAs.
This article discusses how the Point of No Return relates to the Rule of Air Management.
THE NFPA AND AIR MANAGEMENT
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1404, Standard for Fire Service Respiratory Protection Training, 2002 edition, covers specific training policies that relate to the self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). However, many fire departments probably are not following important aspects of this mandate.
NFPA 1404 (5.1.7, plus appendices) states the following:
“Training policies shall include, but shall not be limited to the following:
(1) Identification of the various types of respiratory protection equipment.
(2) Responsibilities of members to obtain and maintain proper facepiece fit.
(3) Responsibilities of members for proper cleaning and maintenance.
(4) Identification of the factors that affect the duration of the air supply.
(5) Determination of the Point of No Return for each member.
(6) Responsibilities of members for using respiratory protection equipment in a hazardous atmosphere.
(7) Limitations of respiratory protection devices.
Most departments have training policies relating to numbers 1, 2, 3, 6, and 7. We are all familiar with our yearly face piece fit test, how we are supposed to clean and maintain our SCBA, and the limitations of our SCBA. However, most of the fire departments in the United States have ignored training policies related to (4) identifying the factors that affect the duration of the air supply and (5) determination of the Point of No Return for each member.
THE POINT OF NO RETURN
What is this idea of the Point of No Return to which NFPA 1404 (5.1.7, plus appendices) refers?
 (1, 2) The entry points to different occupancies. Each of these entry points affects the Point of No Return. (Photos by authors.) |
In ancient lore, sailors associated the Point of No Return with ships sailing too close to the edge of the world and succumbing to the pull of the water as it dragged them over the falls. For many firefighters, the Point of No Return symbolizes that point beyond which you are unable to return from the hazardous environment-in short, the point where you die.
 2 |
We believe that the Point of No Return is not the point where you die but rather that point at which you or your team stops becoming part of the solution and starts to become part of the problem. By crossing the Point of No Return, you are now a part of the problem and, most likely, in need of intervention by resources that might otherwise have been directed toward the initial problem. Crossing the Point of No Return and doing nothing about it can lead you toward death. At best, your situation is quickly resolved, and it is a lesson learned. At worst, you die in the hazardous atmosphere by going too deep, staying too long, and ending up beyond the limitations of your equipment. The Point of No Return is a key concept that is often overlooked in aggressive interior operations and a concept that must be addressed by officers serious about the safety of their crews.
Determining the Point of No Return for each member and identifying the factors that affect the duration of the air supply are critical to the Rule of Air Management and to firefighter safety and survival. In fact, these two mandates are perhaps the most important aspects of an air management policy.
Most of the firefighters who have died in structure fires over the past five years died from carbon monoxide poisoning after they ran out of air, pulled off their face pieces, and breathed in deadly smoke. In other words, many of these firefighters died because of a lack of air management.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE POINT OF NO RETURN
NFPA 1404 (A.5.1.7) lists a number of important factors that affect the Point of No Return. We will discuss each of these factors as they relate to the Rule of Air Management.
Entry Point
This is the point where most firefighters enter the hazard area. It is imperative that all entrants, particularly the officer/team leaders, take note of the entry point and its specifics. What is the size of the opening? To what degree will the entry point hinder firefighters from quickly exiting the hazard? Where is the location of the opening? What are the chances of the entry point’s becoming blocked? Can any debris or façade compromise the entry point? To what degree are handlines and other equipment going to limit the opening? Is there a second means of egress? Is this secondary means of egress already in place? Do the firefighters in the hazard area know where the secondary means of egress is located?
Firefighters’ Physical Condition
We are talking mainly about cardiovascular fitness conditioning here. Your team’s ability to function in the hazardous environment will depend on the team’s least physically conditioned member. This poorly conditioned firefighter could lead you and your team toward the Point of No Return if that firefighter’s air is not being managed correctly. Cardiovascular conditioning and the interrelationship between air management is a good reason for every fire department to institute a wellness-fitness program for its firefighters. Many firefighters’ lives could be saved, and fire departments would benefit from such programs.
Firefighter Size
The larger the individuals on your team, the more difficult it will be for them to move in tight places and for you to remove them if they should get into trouble. It is our experience that, all things being equal, the larger the individual, the more air he uses.
The Type of Work Being Performed
The assigned task is directly related to air usage. Using heavy tools or moving a charged 21⁄2-inch handline through a hazardous environment will take a heavy toll on your available air supply and could push you toward the Point of No Return if you are not practicing the Rule of Air Management. As officers/team leaders enter the hazardous environment, they must make a mental note of their assigned task and how it will affect their crew’s work cycle.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE DURATION OF THE AIR SUPPLY
• Familiarity with equipment. Equipment-having the appropriate equipment and knowing how to use it-is the first factor that affects the duration of the air supply. Not having the right equipment puts you on the path to disaster. It is imperative that officers/team leaders ensure their members are adequately equipped for the task assigned to them prior to entering the hazard zone. It is equally important that they know how to use their equipment, especially when things go wrong.
 (3) How familiar are you with your SCBA pressure gauge? How much air do you have left before your low-air warning bell begins to ring? |
How many firefighters have practiced looking at their pressure gauge, particularly in situations of limited visibility? Do they know where the needle is when they have consumed half of their usable air (not counting their emergency reserve air) (photo 3)? Do they know how to successfully complete an emergency transfill in blackout conditions to a firefighter who is out of air and unconscious? Do they know what the average work cycle is for the amount of air they have in their air cylinder? Do they know how to clean and check their SCBA for problems? Have they practiced air conservation techniques?
If you do not know the answer to any of these questions, we suggest that you go out and drill on your equipment. Remember, your SCBA is the most important piece of equipment you wear. Knowing it and how to use it in adverse conditions may save your life some day.
• Physical and emotional preparedness. The greater your exertion, the quicker your air is depleted. This is not anything new. Officers/team leaders must continually monitor their firefighters and determine how they are handling their assigned tasks from an emotional and a psychological perspective. Are they breathing at an inordinately high rate? Do they seem in control of their movements, and are they moving purposefully? Are they experiencing tunnel vision with their assigned task? Is there any history of claustrophobic reactions or problems in high-stress situations?
We have run multiple air management and search/rescue training sessions in blackout conditions for the Seattle Fire Department and have come across these types of situations with some of our members. These situations occurred in a limited-hazard environment where the individuals knew they were in no real danger. Imagine how quickly these members would breathe through their air supply if they were facing truly serious fire conditions? Competence breeds confidence, so train.
Be cognizant of your crew’s emotional and psychological state when they are wearing their SCBA in a hazardous atmosphere. Sometimes, just telling a firefighter to calm down and slow his breathing can help extend his air supply in the hazardous environment. Often, firefighters who are breathing heavily don’t even know they are doing it until you tell them. The bottom line for officers and team leaders is that situational awareness must extend to the physical and mental state of their team in addition to the environment in which they are operating.
• Know what your air supply is on entry and at reasonable intervals as you proceed into the immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) environment. This practice affects the duration of the air supply. This is an essential piece of the Rule of Air Management-knowing how much air you have in your SCBA.
Checking your air level before you enter the hazard zone is a must. Believe it or not, a number of firefighters have failed to check their air levels before entering an IDLH environment and then found themselves in serious trouble. A preentry air check is so simple. Yet, if you ask around your department, you most likely will find plenty of firefighters who do not perform this preentry air check.
Firefighters must regularly check the air levels on their pressure gauges as they move through the hazardous atmosphere. We recommend checking team air levels every five minutes or so. Some progressive fire departments have instituted the policy of having their dispatchers announce time on-scene every five minutes. This on-scene time announced over the radio is a signal for every member using SCBA to pause and check their team’s air levels.
The heart and soul of air management is knowing how much air you have in your cylinder. Know it when you go in, at intervals along the way, and make sure you have enough air in your bottle to exit the hazardous atmosphere before your low-air warning bell begins to ring. Remember, your reserve air, the air in the red zone of your air pressure gauge, is there only for emergencies. You should be out of the hazardous environment before your low-air warning bell begins to ring. Using the low-air warning bell as a signal to exit the hazardous environment is a recipe for disaster. We want the low-air warning bell to be an emergency alarm, not the false alarm it is today on the U.S. fireground. Exiting the hazardous atmosphere before the low-air warning bell begins to ring is central to the Rule of Air Management.
The U.S. fire service needs to view air management the same way as the dive industry does. Commercial and recreational SCUBA divers check their air from start to finish, and they never use their reserve/emergency air unless they have a true emergency. Think of structural firefighters in a smoke-filled IDLH environment as “smoke divers.” Firefighters, like SCUBA divers, are in a hostile environment where they cannot take off their breathing apparatus. If SCUBA divers can check their air and be back on the surface before they use any of their emergency air, then firefighting “smoke divers” can too. The U.S. fire service must learn from the dive industry, which has been practicing air management for decades.
The fire services of many countries have adopted aggressive air management policies for their firefighters. For example, in England and Hong Kong, if a firefighter works into his emergency air (and the low-air warning bell begins to ring) and no emergency exists, that firefighter is severely disciplined. If this same firefighter fails to follow the Rule of Air Management again and works into his reserve air without being in an emergency situation, that firefighter is no longer employed. This “two strikes and you are out” air management policy is tough, and it illustrates just how serious some fire service organizations are about air management. Keep in mind that every country that has adopted an aggressive air management policy has far fewer firefighter deaths in structures per capita each year than the U.S. fire service.
• Ongoing evaluation of your team based on air supply, physical exertion, and general condition. Officers/team leaders should be aware of where their members are and how they are doing at all times. Officers/team leaders should monitor the specific hazards of the assigned task and any difficulties encountered along the way, and they should recognize changes to the team and to the hazardous environment in which they are working as they occur. How these variables are affecting the team becomes readily apparent if the officer/team leader is monitoring air levels. Firefighters consuming air quickly are usually doing so for a reason. Some conditions that might cause air consumption to increase are heavy workload in a short timeframe, a moderate workload over an extended period of time, high heat, low visibility, increased stress levels, and severe fire conditions.
• The physical layout of the structure and any variables presented as you proceed. These affect the air supply. Recognizing the layout and physical variables of the structure aids in your ability to get the job done safely and effectively. It begins at the entry point and should continue as you and your team move through the hazard area. Taking note of landmarks, conditions, and alternate routes of egress are crucial elements of safe interior operations.
Most firefighters who run out of air get lost or separated from their team in heavy smoke conditions. By staying oriented in the structure, and to their team, firefighters can operate more effectively, under less stress, thereby reducing their air use and extending their work cycle. Do whatever it takes to keep oriented in the hazardous environment-use a tag line, keep a team member at a doorway while another goes into the room to search/extinguish, or, better yet, use a thermal imaging camera (TIC).
The TIC is one of the greatest technical advances to come along in the fire service. If you have one on your rig, use it. Don’t leave it on the rig when you go to an alarm. Use it to stay oriented in searches, to monitor heat conditions overhead, and to enhance situational awareness. It will have a profoundly positive effect on your air supply, allowing you to stay in the structure longer (less wasted time fumbling around in the dark) and to conduct your fire attack/search more efficiently.
• Understanding how far you have advanced into the structure or hazardous environment and the time it has taken you to get there. This goes hand-in-hand with staying oriented in the hazardous environment.
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
If you review the factors that affect the duration of the air supply and look at them together, you will find an outline and an argument for situational awareness, which has always been and will continue to be an important aspect of safe and aggressive interior firefighting. If firefighters conducting interior operations are ignoring situational awareness, they are ignoring safety, and they will pay a dear price sooner or later. Firefighters must know where they are in the hazardous environment in relationship to the entry/exit point and must constantly monitor changing conditions and other factors, such as heat conditions, fire growth, the interior layout of the structure, the air supply of the interior team, secondary means of egress, locations of potential victims (exit pathways and bedrooms), and how the fire attack/search is progressing.
Hopefully, your fire department’s dispatchers give timely on-scene radio reports (every five, 10, or 15 minutes) at every fire and significant event. These reports are important since the other factors affecting the emergency scene, such as fire’s weakening the structure you are in, are still occurring as you attempt to complete your assigned task. As you monitor radio traffic, you will get an idea of what headway is being made, how much time has passed since you arrived at the fireground, and whether you should keep going or leave the hazardous environment. Staying aware of the entire situation will help you make intelligent decisions, particularly in regard to air management.
FINAL THOUGHTS
Many fire departments fail to train their members on the concept of the Point of No Return found in NFPA 1404 (5.1.7, plus appendices). Ignoring this concept can be deadly. It is claiming firefighters’ lives across the United States, and its influence will continue to increase as the structures we encounter on the fireground become larger and fail more quickly. Firefighters must understand the factors that affect the Point of No Return so they can avoid crossing over this dangerous point.
Firefighters in countries with progressive air management policies have lower per-capita firefighter death rates in structure fires than the United States. We believe that the Rule of Air Management is essential to firefighter safety and survival on the fireground.
Endnote
1. “Train in ‘The Rule of air Management,’” Steve Bernocco, Casey Phillips, Phil Jose, and Chris Yob, Fire Engineering, April 2003.
● STEVE BERNOCCO is a 12-year veteran of the Seattle (WA) Fire Department, where he is a lieutenant on Ladder 10. He has served as a training officer and is a member of the Seattle Fire Department Operational Skills Enhancement Development Team.
● MIKE GAGLIANO has 17 years of fire/crash/rescue experience with the Seattle (WA) Fire Department and the United States Air Force. He is a lieutenant on Engine 16 and is a member of the Seattle Fire Department Operational Skills Enhancement Development Team.
● PHIL JOSE, a 15-year veteran of the Seattle (WA) Fire Department, is the captain of Ladder 5. He has served as a training officer and is a member of the Seattle Fire Department Operational Skills Enhancement Development Team.
● CASEY PHILLIPS, a 16-year veteran of the fire service, has served the past 13 years in the Seattle (WA) Fire Department. He is the captain of Engine 40 and a member of the Seattle Fire Department Operational Skills Enhancement Development Team.
Steve Bernocco, Mike Gagliano, Phil Jose, and Casey Phillips will present “The Point of No Return” at the Fire Department Instructors Conference in Indianapolis, April 11-16. Consult the FDIC Official Show Program for exact date and time.
